Tag: Longevity

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Wellness

The Covid-19 Pandemic: An Update

Japan’s two largest “Covid-19 cases” waves were autumn 2022 and late 2022 to early 2023.

The same pattern applies to Japan’s daily new deaths.

For charts, please click here.

In summary, Japan’s relatively good 2020 and 2021 experience deteriorated during 2022 into 2023.

It is important therefore to update the data that appeared in our book: Wellness Topics: insights from Japan, section two, chapter one: “Why Japan has had relatively low Covid-19 deaths”.

G7 Countries plus South Korea. Covid-19-related Deaths per One Million Population

USA3,642
UK3,389
Italy3,261
France2,556
Germany2,182
Canada1,538
Japan595
S. Korea700

In terms of policy and people’s behaviors in Japan, a recent research study concluded that the intervention effects e.g. the requirements of the State of Emergencies (SOE) and quasi-SOEs, had positive effects on the adoption of preventive behaviors among individuals, including handwashing, working from home, avoiding traveling and social events.

However, the contribution of information effects, alerting people to the virus threat, was much larger than that of intervention effects, suggesting the importance of how and when information should be communicated to the public to prevent the spread of infection. (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

We await studies examining the importance of the pre-pandemic health of the respective populations, e.g., with respect to the prevalence of obesity, diabetes, kidney disease, and so on.

References:

  1. Intervention and information effects at the individual level during the COVID-19 pandemic in Japan, by Mateus Silva Chang, Isamu Yamamoto, November 2023
  2. Japan’s voluntary lockdown, by Watanabe T, Yabu T., June 2021
  3. Japan’s voluntary lockdown: further evidence based on age-specific mobile location data, by Watanabe T, Yabu T., 2021
  4. Covid-19 Lockdown Cost/Benefits: A Critical Assessment of the Literature, by Allen DW, 2022
  5. The Immediate Effect of COVID-19 Policies on Social-Distancing Behavior in the United States, by Abouk R, Heydari B, 2021
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Wellness

Ayurveda and Scientific Support

It is not uncommon to encounter the health benefits of traditional remedies. Each of our blog posts and published books highlight the scientific support for wellness activities. So is there scientific support for herbal medicines, and more narrowly Ayurveda?

This is a complex subject, and readers are encouraged to read our background report, here. There is a considerable body of evidence, accumulated in India over the centuries. Whilst not to RCT standards, it is currently available only in Sanskrit, and is largely offline, i.e. not digitalized.

The reasons for a general dearth of RCT-based scientific research include:

  1. Ayurveda medicines have no patent protection, reducing the value of research findings.
  2. RCT studies are expensive.
  3. Ayurveda is more than a medicine, involving broader therapies, and it can become a way of life.

Testing a way of life is challenging.

However, the last twenty years have seen extensive research into the ingredients used in either classical, granthas products or proprietary Ayurvedic medicines (PAM), i.e. the Ayurvedic herbs.

In conclusion, there appears to be extensive evidence in India which will become progressively available in English and online over the coming years. In combination with more RCT-based studies, Ayurveda is expected to remain a topic of considerable interest.

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Wellness

The Health and Wellness Benefits of Nature

Research is underway on the relationship between time spent in greenery, nature, and health.

For example, in Japan, shinrinyoku practices of walking amongst trees have been found to have scientifically supported positive benefits. (1)

More broadly, the research program divides into two techniques.

  1. Residential proximity – well advanced
  2. Direct exposure – underway

1) Residential proximity, for example the amount green spaces within one kilometer of one’s home. For more on the results of this approach, please follow this link.

Residential proximity research makes use of satellite data and big data techniques in general. However, what is not known is the frequency that people use the green space, or whether they regularly visit green space outside the residential proximity definition. For this, it is necessary to measure directly the time spent in natural environments.

2) Direct exposure, for example by direct monitoring or surveys. One study, (2) for example investigated the relationship between recreational nature contact in the last seven days and self-reported health and well-being measures. Weekly contact was measured in one-hour blocks. The study’s conclusion is interesting:

Compared to no nature contact last week, the likelihood of reporting good health or high well-being became significantly greater with contact ≥120 mins. Positive associations peaked between 200–300 mins per week with no further gain. The pattern was consistent across key groups including older adults and those with long-term health issues. It did not matter how 120 mins of contact a week was achieved (e.g. one long vs. several shorter visits/week).

In summary, two to four hours a week of recreational nature exposure, e.g., walking in large parks, woods, the countryside, is recommended.

Reference:

  1. J-Wellness 2020: the economics, career options, and investment opportunities, page 74, by Peter Eadon-Clarke and Yoriko Soma
  2. Spending at least 120 minutes a week in nature is associated with good health and wellbeing, by Mathew P. White, Ian Alcock, James Grellier, Benedict W. Wheeler, Terry Hartig, Sara L. Warber, Angie Bone, Michael H. Depledge & Lora E. Fleming, June 2019
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Wellness

Time-restricted Eating vs. Calorie Restriction

  1. Time-restricted eating, e.g., Eating from noon to 8 PM only
  2. Calorie restriction, e.g., a 25% reduction

Given the widespread problem of obesity, there is considerable interest in both techniques as a means to lose weight. Recently, time-restricted eating has gained popularity because of its seeming simplicity.

A 12-month RCT study (1) of weight loss methods found that both techniques resulted in an average 5% reduction in body weight. The authors noted that time-restricted eating is both effective and feasible across a diverse population. In another RCT study, (2) both groups ate a low-calorie diet whilst one group also undertook time-restricted eating. The study conclusion: “Among patients with obesity, a regimen of time-restricted eating was not more beneficial with regard to reduction in body weight, body fat, or metabolic risk factors than daily calorie restriction.”

The theory behind time-restricted eating is that after a period of hours without eating, the body switches from a ready supply of energy from food, to burning its fat resources. (3) This is a theory without research support currently. One study (4) found, following a 10-day fast, that, to quote the BBC article, (3) “the weight loss by a group of male subjects, during the early stages of the fast was predominately a loss of water, protein and other lean tissue rather than fat loss.”  

In addition, it is important during the time-restricted eating period to eat a balanced diet. If one goes from three meals to two meals, there is a risk of the diversity of food inputs declining.

In addition to a balanced diet, and when the body receives it, another factor to consider is the efficiency with which the body processes it. Please see our blog posts on the gut microbiome, e.g., “Diet, Gut Microbes, and Health”, of 30 June 2021

References:

  1. Time-Restricted Eating Without Calorie Counting for Weight Loss in a Racially Diverse Population: A Randomized Controlled Trial, by Shuhao Lin et al, July 2023
  2. Calorie Restriction with or without Time-Restricted Eating in Weight Loss, by Deying Liu et al, April, 2022
  3. https://www.bbcgoodfood.com/howto/guide/what-intermittent-fasting-diet
  4. Is muscle and protein loss relevant in long-term fasting in healthy men? A prospective trial on physiological adaptations, by Claire Laurens et al, October 2021

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Wellness

A Variety of Mushrooms

Please follow the link, here, for an introduction to the most popular mushrooms in Japan.

Mushrooms are an integral ingredient in the Japanese diet. Japan’s humid climate has resulted in approximately 5,000 varieties of mushrooms. Of these, about 100 are edible, and around 20 are eaten in large, commercial quantities.

Japanese farmers have been introducing techniques to break the link with nature. Mushrooms are normally harvested from nature in the autumn. 300 years ago, farmers introduced small logs with pre-prepared fungus spores. Today’s factory-controlled environments have enabled, with the one exception of matsutake mushrooms, fresh, cheap mushrooms available throughout the year.

The body’s gut microbiome is healthier with a diverse diet, and in Japan people consume a diverse range of vegetables, including a variety of mushrooms. In addition, different types of mushrooms have different potential health effects. For a discussion of the latter, with references, please follow the link in the first paragraph above.

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Wellness

Longevity: Behaviour dominates Genes

Manazuru Matsuri

Summary: This is a complex subject. Recent studies have shifted the balance of importance towards behavior. The contribution of genes to the variation in longevity is now believed to be less than 10%.

Studies look at longevity variations across relatives. However, in addition to common genes, there are likely to be common environmental, “sociocultural” factors. Attributing longevity variations between these factors is a challenging data and statistical activity. The study Estimates of the Heritability of Human Longevity Are Substantially Inflated due to Assortative Mating analyzed 54.43 million family trees from 406 million people’s birth and death records. The data came from Ancestry.com, spanning the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century.

The study concluded that: the true heritability of human longevity for birth cohorts across the 1800s and early 1900s was well below 10%, and that it has been generally overestimated due to the effect of assortative mating.

Assortative mating is when people with similar genotypes mate with each other with greater frequency than expected by a random pattern. For example, deaf people tend to marry each other.

For a little more detail, and references, please see here.

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Wellness

Nutritional Benefits of Eating Seaweed

Seaweed are algae that grow along rocky shorelines. Alternative names in English are sea vegetables or sea greens. In Japanese common names include wakame and nori.

Seaweed and leafy green vegetables have similar nutritional benefits.

Wakame is nutrient-dense, low in fat as well as an amazing source of omega-3s, which lowers the risk of heart disease, depression, and arthritis. Seaweed is rich in minerals and iodine, supports thyroid hormones and improves skin health. (1) Scientific research support is presented in the background paper available here.

Seaweed is normally classified into three groups by the leaf color: green, brown and red. Shallow waters receive a lot of sunlight, and the algae are green. Next is brown. Red algae are found in the depths. For examples of the different types of edible seaweed, please click here.

Some examples of seaweed in Japanese cuisine follow.

Nori is the “sushi seaweed”, and is particularly dense in protein, around 40% protein by weight.

Kombu is the seaweed in miso soup, being one of the main ingredients of dashi, used as the broth.

Wakame most commonly appears in Japanese salads.

Mekabu is the edible part of the wakame plant root. In Japan it is sold both fresh and dried.

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Wellness

Ikigai, but in Japan it is probably not work

The Japanese word Ikigai is known worldwide. It translates as the reason for living, one’s purpose in life. (1) Ikigai is associated with a longer life. (2) Please see our blog post of May 8, 2021.

Surveys (3, 4) of Japanese workers’ attitude to work indicate its relative lack of importance.

 JapanWorldwide
Importance of work in your life48%72%
My job gives me a sense of purpose38%57%

Source: Nippon.com (3)

72% of employees surveyed responded that they did not want to become a manager. (4) The reasons for this are shown below (multiple replies possible).

Reasons for not wanting a management position
No desire for advancement51%
Too many additional responsibilities50%
Increased workload43%
Not suited to management38%
Work is easier in current position25%
Would ruin my work-life balance24%
Salary would not increase proportionately23%
Satisfied with current situation9%
Don’t intend to stay with the company long-term8%
Wouldn’t be able to do the work I like7%

Source: Nippon.com (4)

This has implications for household finances. Previously office workers advanced with seniority, and the gradual increase in managerial responsibilities (being accountable for the performance of more people). Incomes grew steadily with time. This facilitated family formation and retirement savings. For the 70% of people that now wish to avoid advancement, incomes are less likely to grow.

It also suggests that many of Japan’s managers under the old system were performing management roles against their desire. This was probably associated with high stress.

References:

  1. Ikigai: The Japanese Secret to a Long and Happy Life, by Hector Garcia and Francesc Miralles, 2016.
  2. Relationship of having hobbies and a purpose in life with mortality, activities of daily living, and instrumental activities of daily living among community-dwelling elderly adults, by Kimiko Tomioka, Norio Kurumatani, and Hiroshi Hosoi, March 5, 2016
  3. Survey reveals Japanese Attitudes toward Work, Nippon.com, April 19, 2023
  4. Management positions Lose their Appeal to Japanese Employees, Nippon.com, February 22, 2023
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Wellness

Volunteering, Community Activities, Reduce Mortality Risk

Mikuni Matsuri, Fukui Prefecture

Let’s go to Japanese Festivals!

There is scientific evidence that those who do volunteer activities are healthier.

One study (1) investigated the impact of volunteer activity over a four-year period. Participants were aged over 50 (average age 66) with 59% being women, 66% married. There was a control group who undertook no volunteering activity. The key conclusions were:

1) During the 4-year follow-up period, those volunteering 100 hours a year or more (versus zero hours a year) had a 44% reduced risk of mortality.

2) Of the health and well-being indicators that were monitored, the measures which improved are clustered principally in “psychological well-being/distress” and “social factors” classifications. A detailed table is available in a background paper, here.

A review (2) of over 1000 academic research studies over 1990-2020 looking at the relationship between exercise and mental health commented:

Physical health is clearly intertwined with mental health in a bidirectional fashion. Scientific evidence shows that changes in thinking patterns and behaviors affect neurological, endocrine, and immune systems. Conversely, disruption in these biological systems negatively impacts mental health.

With the intertwining of mental health and physical health, community activity, participation in local festivals, volunteering in general, has an overall beneficial effect.

References:

  1. Volunteering and Subsequent Health and Well-Being in Older Adults: An Outcome-Wide Longitudinal Approach, by Eric S Kim, Ashley Whillans, Matthew T Lee, Ying Chen, and Tyler Vanderweele, 2020
  2. Move Your Mental Health, A review of the scientific evidence on the role of exercise and physical activity on mental health, by John W. Brick, mental foundation, May 2021
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Wellness

Soba: It’s Good for You

Juwari Buckwheat Soba, Fukui Prefecture

The Japanese word for buckwheat is soba. Buckwheat is known for its high mineral and anti-oxidant content. It has little fat. Soba is a staple of the Japanese diet.

The study “Buckwheat: A Useful Food and it’s Effects on Human Health” (1) concludes:

Buckwheat is a food with rich nutrient content and important functional properties. In addition, it does not lose these properties in the processing stages, it also enriches the products it is added to both nutritionally and functionally. Because of these properties, it can show positive effects such as antioxidant, antihypertensive, antidiabetic on human health.

In particular, soba has health benefits for the heart. For more details, please see the four-page paper here.

The above is important to know as the price of soba increases. Japan only produced 42% of its buckwheat consumption domestically in 2020, according to the Japan Soba Association. Russia is the world’s largest exporter. European buckwheat average prices are up 50% 2022 versus 2021 (Euro 4.11 versus Euro 2.65). (2)

References:

  1. Buckwheat: A Useful Food and it’s Effects on Human Health, by Haci Omer Yilmaz, Nurcan Yabanci Ayhan, and Cagdas Salih Medic, 2018
  2. https://eng.lsm.lv/article/economy/economy/economists-prices-in-latvia-will-continue-rising.a458372/
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Wellness

10,000 Daily Steps; Scientific Support

The recently released study, Daily steps, and all-cause mortality: a meta-analysis of 15 international cohorts, (1) supports the benefits of walking by linking it to mortality risk.

  1. For people over the age of 60, increasing daily steps from 3,000 to 7,000 reduces mortality risk by 50%
  2. For adults under the age of 60, the optimum daily steps appear to be 8,000 to 10,000

Japan’s relatively good daily steps of 6,010, (2) the highest amongst G7 countries, is still low relative to the optimum levels noted above.

For more details, please see our four-page background paper here.

References:

  1. Daily steps and all-cause mortality: a meta-analysis of 15 international cohorts, by Amanda E Paluch, Shivangi Bajpai, Prof David R Bassett, Prof Mercedes R Carnethon, Prof Ulf Ekelund, Prof Kelly R Evenson, et al., published in The Lancet, March 2022
  2. Large-scale physical activity data reveal worldwide activity inequality, by Tim Althoff, Rok Sosič, Jennifer L. Hicks, Abby C. King, Scott L. Delp & Jure Leskovec, July 2017
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Wellness

Estimating Excess Mortality due to the Covid-19 Pandemic

A study published in The Lancet (1) estimates that globally over 2020-21, 18.2 million excess deaths occurred. 191 countries and territories were included.

Japan’s relatively good experience is shown below.

Estimated excess mortality rate per 100,000 (1)

Global120.3
Western Europe140.0
Denmark94.1
France124.2
Germany120.5
Italy227.4
Spain186.7
Sweden91.2
United Kingdom126.8
USA179.3
Canada60.5
Japan44.1
Brazil186.9
India152.5

Excess mortality due to the Covid-19 pandemic is defined as the net difference between the number of deaths during the pandemic (measured by observed or estimated all-cause mortality) and the number of deaths that would be expected based on past trends in all-cause mortality. The study adjusted for late registration and anomalies such as heat waves and used six models to estimate expected mortality.

In addition to estimation issues, the difference between excess mortality and reported Covid-19 deaths might be a function of underdiagnosis due to insufficient testing, reporting challenges, or higher than expected mortality from other diseases due to pandemic-related changes in behaviors or reduced access to health care or other essential services. (1)

For more data, please see the original article or click here.

References:

  1. Estimating excess mortality due to the COVID-19 pandemic: a systematic analysis of COVID-19-related mortality, 2020–21, by Dr Haidong Wang, University of Washington, published in The Lancet, March 2022
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Wellness

Covid-19, Japan’s Elderly, Exercise, and Mental Health

A study (1) examined the prevalence of exercise as a coping strategy among Japanese community-dwelling older adults and its impact on their psychological well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic. Spanning Japan’s first Covid-19 lockdown period, the study covered 618 community-dwelling older adults.

The study concluded: Older adults who walked to maintain their physical and mental health experienced better well-being than those who did not.

This is in line with established scientific research on the relationship between exercise and mental health.

A review (2) of over 1000 academic research studies over 1990-2020 looking at the relationship between exercise and mental health commented:

Physical health is clearly intertwined with mental health in a bidirectional fashion. Scientific evidence shows that changes in thinking patterns and behaviors affect neurological, endocrine, and immune systems. Conversely, disruption in these biological systems negatively impacts mental health.

As well as biological pathways – such as increasing brain neurotransmitters and improving hormone function involved in mental health, exercise appears to improve mental health through social and self-efficacy pathways,

Selected key conclusions are shown below.

Exercise and Mental Health: Move Your Mental Health study (2) selected conclusions
Does exercise and physical activity benefit mental health?
89% of all published peer-reviewed research between 1990 and 2020 found a positive, statistically significant relationship between exercise/physical activity and mental health.
How much exercise and how often?
Overall, three to five 30-45-minute moderate to vigorous exercise sessions per week appear to deliver optimal mental health benefits (3)
What type of exercise?
High-intensity exercise regimens are generally more effective than low-intensity regimens (4)
Mindfulness-based activities like yoga and tai chi, though they can be lower intensity forms of movement, deliver more mental health benefits than walking
What mental health outcomes are most impacted by exercise?
Exercise is strongly associated with general mental and emotional well-being including reduced stress, and improved mood and quality of life
Evidence strongly supports cardiovascular/aerobic exercise for reducing depression, showing medium to large effect sizes
Evidence shows moderate but reliable effect sizes for cardiovascular/aerobic exercise reducing symptoms in people with anxiety disorders
Yoga and other mindful exercises such as Tai Chi and Qigong show strong evidence for reducing symptoms of anxiety and depression
Source: Move Your Mental Health, (2) Conceptasia, January 2022

References:

  1. Exercise as a coping strategy and its impact on the psychological well-being of Japanese community-dwelling older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic: A longitudinal study, by Manami Ejiri, Hisashi Kawai, Takeshi Kera, Kazshige Ihara, Yoshinori Fujiwara, Yutaka Watanabe, Hirohiko Hirano, Hunkyung Kim, and Shuichi Obuchi, September 2021
  2. Move Your Mental Health, A review of the scientific evidence on the role of exercise and physical activity on mental health, by John W. Brick, mental foundation, May 2021
  3. Association between physical exercise and mental health in 1·2 million individuals in the USA between 2011 and 2015: a cross-sectional study, by Chekroud, S. R., Gueorguieva, R., Zheutlin, A. B., Paulus, M., Krumholz, H. M., Krystal, J. H., & Chekroud, A. M., 2018
  4. Exercise in the treatment of clinical anxiety in general practice – a systematic review and meta-analysis, by Aylett, E., Small, N. & Bower, P., 2018
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Wellness

Kakeibo & Financial Wellness

Kakeibo, a household accounting book, and the practice of recording and monitoring income and expenditures in a physical notebook, traces its origins in Japan to 1904, and to Hani Motoko, its inventor. The kakeibo method forces one to think about one’s needs, spending and motivations, leading to an increased ability to save. (1, 2, 3)

Financial Wellness

The fundamental difference with existing personal financial planning is that “Financial Wellness” does not begin with money, but with an understanding of Wellness and the associated attainment of longevity and the 100-year life.

Without having wellness at one’s core, money worries can flood in. Surveys usually find money to be the number one cause of stress. With wellness the core focus, money becomes a facilitator, in fact just one of many facilitators. Fortunately, a wellness regime only requires a modest amount of money

Financial Wellness & Savings

In an environment of the 100-year life, we postulate that after education, people will be working from age 25 to 80 followed by 20 years of leisure.

Whilst working, we recommend saving 20% of one’s after-tax income.

In contrast to the conventional study-work-retire cycle, the new typical life will include one or two career reinventions involving changing industries (as well as working for multiple different companies during each career phase). Career reinventions will involve perhaps 1-3 years of retraining, repositioning.

To facilitate the above financial resources are needed not just for the 20 years after the age of 80, but also during the career reinvention periods.

For more, please see the 17-page Financial Wellness paper here.

References.

  1. CNBC: I tried ‘Kakeibo’: The Japanese art of saving money—and it completely changed how I spend my money, by Sarah Harvey, published January 2020
  2. Credit.com, Kakeibo: The Mindful Japanese Budgeting System, published August 2021
  3. Japan Times: Kakeibo: Turning a dull aspect of Japanese life into social media gold, published January 2020

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Wellness

Eating early is best

A recent study (1) found that people who start eating before 8:30 a.m. had lower blood sugar levels and less (which is better) insulin resistance, which could reduce the risk of developing type 2 diabetes.

Both higher insulin resistance and high blood sugar levels affect a person’s metabolism, the breaking down of food to its simpler components: proteins, carbohydrates (or sugars), and fats. Metabolic disorders such as diabetes occur when these normal processes become disrupted. (2)

The average time that the Japanese have breakfast is 7.10 a.m, with probably near 90% of people starting breakfast before 8.30 a.m.

Japanese Breakfast Start Times on Weekdays (2011 survey)

Time (a.m.)%
Before 65.6
6 to 730.6
7 to 842.7
8 to 915.2
After 95.8

Source: Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications (3)

One explanation for the health benefits of early eating is the body’s circadian clock, and how regular patterns help the body’s efficient functioning. The circadian clock regulates sleep/wake cycles, hormonal activity, body temperature rhythm and eating/digesting.

Japan’s SW to NE archipelago has one time zone, and population densities tend towards the eastern edge of the time zone. Tokyo’s sunrise, for example, oscillates between 4:30 a.m. at the height of summer and 6:50 a.m. in the depths of winter.

This all seems consistent with the Japanese being able to wake with the sun all year around and start breakfast before 8.30 a.m. – a healthy lifestyle.

There appears to no benefit to shorter eating durations (time-restricted eating): Shorter eating durations were associated with worse metabolic outcomes, except when paired with an earlier start time. All subgroups with an early eating start time had better metabolic outcomes regardless of eating duration. (1)

References:

  1. Eating Timing: Associations with Dietary Intake and Metabolic Health, by Amy Taetzsch, Susan B Roberts, Asma Bukhari, Alice H Lichtenstein, Cheryl H Gilhooly, Edward Martin, Amy J Krauss, Adrienne Hatch-McChesney, and Sai Krupa Das, 2021
  2. Endocrine Society press release, 17 March 2021: https://www.endocrine.org/news-and-advocacy/news-room/featured-science-from-endo-2021/eating-before-830-am-could-reduce-risk-factors-for-type-2-diabetes
  3. Hatena Blog: What time do Japanese people have breakfast?  https://nbakki.hatenablog.com/entry/What_Time_Japanese_Have_Breakfast%3F
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Wellness

Green tea, Growing in Japan

Green tea in Hamarikyuteien

From the convenience of PET bottle green tea to the leisurely traditional tea ceremony, and the specialist green tea shops and casual cafes in between, green tea remains ubiquitous in Japan.

Expenditure in Japan on green tea products at ¥11,625 per household in 2019 was a new high (dataset from 2003), table below.

This has been driven by the growing popularity of pet-bottle green tea, with sales exceeding leaf tea sales for the first time in 2007.

Green Tea Expenditure per Household by Year (Yen)

 200320072019
Leaf6,1385,2903,780
Bottled4,6275,8027,845
Total10,76511,09211,625

Source: Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications, Household Statistics, Conceptasia, October 2021

Green tea offers a deep sensory experience of color, flavor, and aroma, as well as delivering health benefits.

Recent human studies suggest that green tea may contribute to a reduction in the risk of cardiovascular disease and some forms of cancer.

For those interested in learning more about the health benefits of drinking green tea, crude leaf production in Japan, types of green tea by taste and aroma, and the names of some leading brands, please see the background paper here.